Examine the Extent to Which Gender Is Socially Constructed

Gender differences be biologicly constructed. We argon born either as anthropoid or female person. With bug out going either that these state work forcets wait radiation diagram and cardinal rat take the view that this is the normal guess. What then is evoke? Is there a difference between ride and sexual practice? Distinctions between sex and sexual activity wipe out been made by favorable scientists from the wo custodys liberationist movement of 1970s, when feminists argued that the handed-down views of maleness and muliebrity a good deal led to the disempowerment of women.Ann Oakley (1972) in p crafticular, decline the stage for the socialization explorations of sexual activity indistinguishability (Abbott 2005). Since this latter part of the 19th century, the familiar plainion made by sociologists is that sex is derived from the biologic differences between men and women chromo close to watch up, internal and impertinent genitals and fruitful organs am ongst otherwises. Gender, nonetheless, refers to the socially constructed characteristics of masculinity and womanhood, characteristics that atomic number 18 defined by distinct societies and market-gardenings in different ways.In note, there argon arguments proposing that sexuality differences argon based on biological sex and result from biological factors we life wishly parade characteristics of masculinity and femininity. These different views argon often referred to as the nature v kick upstairs debate (fenland et al 2009, Lippa 2005 and Abbott 2005) hither we bequeath look at some of the biological explanations in live on of the assumption that sexuality differences are biologically unflinching before moving on to the sociological explorations of the social construction of sexual practice, and the limitations of both views.We will also look at the sexual urge differences across cultures and the baffle of the crowd media in shaping our society. Biologica l sex differences use up often been used to explain the natural differences in portions employed by men and women men are naturally the breadwinners and the women nurture and take care of the family. The different arguments for the biological explanations of sex roles are often referred to as essentialism and biological determinism (Marsh et al 2009). Talcott Parsons (Parsons and Bales 1955 as cited in Marsh et al 009) argued that the natural differences between men and women suit them to specific roles inwardly society. This is referred to as the sex-role surmisal. This theory relies on the present that there are two distinct categories of men and women throughout the world. It therefore follows that straightness is viewed as the norm. This immediately excludes those persons who feel that their sexual urge identity does not correspond with their biological sex, for example transsexuals and transvestites.Since the first wave of feminist movement in the 1970s the focus has shifted towards the this instant dominant socialization explanations of gender identity, however we still essay new biological theories and studies shape uping. For example, biological determinists generate looked to the differences in male and female principals. In their book headway Sex (1989), Anne Moir and David Jessel talk of the prenatal ductless gland theory, whereby testosterone has an influence on thought swear out and emotions leading to the brain cosmos pumped(p) differently between men and women (Marsh et al 2009).Simon Baron-Cohen also has similar views the female brain is preponderantly hard-wired for empathy, and the male brain is predominantly hard-wired for understanding and building systems. (Simon Baron-Cohen 2003 as cited in Marsh et al 2009220). In line of business, the assorted socialization explanations of gender argue that our gender identities are created by society, by interactions from wee kidskinhood with parents, siblings and peers (socia l conditioning theory) and by external influences such as the mass media, continually developing through our social interactions and experiences into adulthood.The differences across cultures in what is considered as manly and wo servicemanly are also studied in support of this concept. The different social experiences of women and men are the creation of society faraway more than biology (Macionis and Plummer 2005308). The social reading theory suggests that from birth we take heed what is considered as gender-appropriate behaviours and traits (Marsh et al 2009). Infants are telln as mindless states, waiting to be written on by their environment (Bilton et al 2002136). This theory suggests that through nteraction with parents, siblings and peers, children learn the characteristics of their gender role which emotions to display, activities to take part in or avoid, toys to play with, clothing to wear, work and hobbies to hire amongst others. It is also widely accepted that children transcript what they see and try to emulate their peers and so on This is referred to by sociologists as modelling. The legal age of persons will recall that some behaviours are encouraged and accepted whereas if a child emulates something that a parent views as injure or abnormal this is discouraged. The reactions from parents etc. einforce the gender characteristics expected of the child (Marsh et al 2009). A shoot undertaken in North Carolina of pre school children (Robinson and Morris 1986 cited in Bilton et al 2002) proposes that the social larn theory is an incomplete explanation that we learn all gender-appropriate behaviours. In this study, children were themselves selecting gender- separated toys for their Christmas presents. For example dolls were selected by the girls and military toys by the boys. The parents selections for the children were mostly sex-neutral art supplies and musical instruments.The early inclinations of the children to conform to their gender roles cannot be explained by the social learning theory (Bilton et al 2002). In 1971 Sandra Bem, a Pennsylvanian psychologist created the Bem Sex Role Inventory. This inventory lists conglomerate characteristics which are stereotyped as universe masculine (dominant, athletic) or maidenlike (affectionate, flatterable). Individuals can assess themselves by selecting which of the characteristics they view as being desirable for a man or woman in locate to determine how well you fit into your traditional gender role.The results from a sample of participants show that both men and women share a range of what are considered to be conventional feminine and masculine traits (Marsh et al 2009). virtually writers invite taken that Bem is in fix arguing that the development of typical gender roles and gender stereotyping are not unavoidable (Marchbank and Letherby 2007125 as cited in Marsh et al 2009223). In other rowing parents, educateers etc. can influence the gender ide ntities of the children.Money and Ehrhdart (1972) report the case of a 7 month old boy who afterward losing his penis in an accident underwent functioning to reconstruct his genitals as female. He was thereafter raised as a girl and is reported to have genuine normally as such (Money and Ehrdart 1972 as cited in Bilton et al 2002). This would support the interpreted view of Bem above. The stereotypic gender projections of the mass media are also said to have an influence on our gender identities, often reinforcing gender stereotypes. The media are forms of pedagogy that teach us how to be men and women (Kellner 19955 as cited in Marsh et al 2009231).Some argue that the media however offers a transition of images that both challenge and support stereotypical views (Stacey 1994 as in Marsh et al 2009). Feminine stereotypes are reinforced by media representation of the fashion, beauty and diet industries, instruction on physical improvement and reinforcing the stereotype that wom en should always look their best and pluck and preen themselves. Programmes such as How to odor Good Naked and Extreme Makeover are becoming increasingly popular. Masculine stereotypes are also reinforced in advertising.For example, the beer constancy relies on the masculine stereotype to magical spell to its audience and alternatives such as light men and househusbands amongst others are markedly go away from this type of advert. (Strate 2004 cited in Marsh et al 2009). The media is viewed by sociologists as a knock-down(a) tool in conveying stereotypical and idealistic views of femininity and masculinity to its audience. different arguments and studies highlighting the social construction of gender look at the different views across different cultures upon what characteristics are considered as masculine and feminine.Margaret Mead, an American cultural anthropologist, undertook a study of three primitive societies in spite of appearance radical Guinea (1935), the Arapesh , the Mundugumor and the Tchambuli. Mead noted that the Arapesh men and women verbalised similar attitudes and behaviours. They were peaceful, sensitive and cooperative, traits that in our culture are considered as feminine. The Mundugumor men and women over again shared similar behaviours, however, in contrast to the Arapesh they displayed what we would view as masculine traits aggressive, self-loving and warlike.The Tchambuli men and women, similar to our culture, displayed different behaviours although the women displayed masculine traits of dominance and aggression, and the men displayed feminine traits, having responsibility for domestic activities and care of the teen as well as get up and decorating themselves (Macionis and Plummer 2005, Marsh et al 2009). A further example of the cultural differences surrounding masculinity and femininity can be seen in Samoa where men can take on the role and identity of females. They are cognize as faafafine which literally means li ke a woman.The biological sex is male but the gender is considered as female. They dress like women, carry out what are considered as the female tasks within the household cooking, cleaning, and washing and have relationships with other men. It can be the choice of a boy to take on a female role or it whitethorn be that they are raised as faafafine by their family if they have no or few daughters needed to undertake the female role within the household. Although men have relationships with the faafafines they strongly feel that this is not homosexual behavior.Faafafines consider themselves female and believe that the men who have relations with them also see them as female (See National geographical Channel Taboo studies). We can see clearly from Meads study and the faafafines in Samoa that different cultures define masculinity and femininity in different ways. Gender identities are capable of being shaped or formed, therefore giving substantial burthen to the argument that gend er is socially constructed and is derived from our social and cultural traditions and views.On balance, the arguments of the biological determinists appear real limited in their application to those outwith the normal heterosexual categories of male and female. In contrast the socialization explanations show that we can influence gender identities and that although sex is biologically inflexible it does not automatically follow that we naturally inherit the stereotypical characteristics of masculinity and femininity. Meads study alone provides strong march to support this point.To conclude, the general assumption and explanations that gender differences are biologically determined appear to have been somewhat overshadowed since the 1970s. The majority of sociologists are in preference of the views, studies and evidence that support the sociological explanation of gender as being socially constructed with any differences being derived from society and culture. In comparison, the b iological viewpoints and theories appear to struggle to correlate with todays modern and multicultural society.References Abbott, P. Wallace, C. and Tyler, M. (2005) An Introduction to Sociology libber Perspectives. London Routledge. Bilton, T. , Bonnett, K. , Jones, P. , Lawson, T. , Skinner, D. , Stanworth, M. and Webster, A. (2002) Introductory Sociology. Basingstoke Macmillan. Lippa, R. A. (2005) Gender, Nature, and Nurture. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Macionis, J. and Plummer, K. (2005) Sociology A planetary Introduction. Harlow Pearson. Marsh, I. , Keating, M. , Punch, S. and Harden, J. (2009) Sociology Making Sense of Society. HarlowPearson.